Getting Ready

Part of the Fertile Crescent, Jordan was home to some of mankind’s first settlements. Due to its strategic location at the crossroads of Asia, Africa and Europe, Jordan changed hands many times throughout antiquity, and was ruled by nomadic Arab tribes, Pharaonic Egyptians, classical Greeks, Romans, Persians and Byzantines, who in turn influenced one another. Since the mid-seventh century AD, the land of Jordan has remained almost continuously in the hands of various Arab and Islamic dynasties.

Ancient Jordan
Evidence of mankind’s presence in Jordan dates back to the Paleolithic period (500,000-17,000 BC). The first villages were settled in the Neolithic period, following the advent of agriculture – climate change caused the majority of the population to settle in the west. Trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia began around 3000 BC, and expanded during the Middle Bronze Age, when distinct communities arose in northern and central Jordan. The south was populated by Bedouin-like tribes. Jordan came under Egyptian control during the rule of Pharaoh Tuthmosis III, who rose to power in 1482 BC. The relative peace of this period encouraged international trade.

The Iron Age (1200-332 BC) saw a shift in the level of power from individual “city-states” to larger kingdoms. Though nominally still ruled by Egypt, Jordan’s three kingdoms prospered, making them targets for raid or sometimes conquest by neighboring kingdoms. The bulk of the biblical Old Testament took place during this time. With the rise of the Persian Empire in 539 BC, Jordan and Palestine were placed under the control of a Persian viceroy.

Greek and Roman Rule
Though the Persian Empire was the largest yet known in the Near East, it was weakened by revolts and conspiracies. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered the Persian capital and established Greek control over Jordan and surrounding countries. The Greeks founded a number of cities in Jordan, most of which were heavily reconstructed during later eras. The Roman Emperor Pompey conquered Jordan, Syria and Palestine in 63 BC, ushering in four centuries of Roman control. Provincial cities were rebuilt in grand Roman style – Jerash in Jordan was the most splendid. Despite some tensions, this was generally a period of peace and infrastructural development.

The Nabateans
This fascinating civilization emerged in southern Jordan before the time of Alexander’s conquest. Nomadic tribes from Arabia began settling these lands in the 6th century BC, and developed into highly skilled water engineers and traders. The Nabatean capital was the famed city of Petra, carved out of solid stone and located on an important trading crossroads. The Nabateans were governed by a royal family, but were strongly democratic, and worshiped a pantheon of gods. Though they were able to resist military conquest for centuries, they were strongly influenced by Hellenic culture, which is evident in their art and architecture. The Nabateans coexisted peacefully with the Roman rulers for a time, as well, but eventually came under Roman control in 106 AD. Petra was largely redesigned in the Roman style, and a period of relative prosperity followed, until the Nabateans abandoned their capital in the 4th century AD for reasons unknown.

Byzantine Period
Emperor Constantine I took over the Eastern Roman Empire in 324 AD, and converted to Christianity in 333. Jordan had been a refuge for persecuted Christians for centuries before this time. As Christianity became the accepted religion of Jordan, churches and chapels sprung up. It was a time of prosperity and large-scale construction, until plague decimated the population in 542.

Islamic Rule, the Crusades, and the Ottoman Empire
As the Byzantines fought invasions by the Sassianians of Persia, a revolt was brewing in Jordan’s southern deserts. Arab tribesmen, united under the Muslim faith, successfully dismantled Byzantine control of Jordan, Syria, and Palestine by 628. Jordan continued to prosper, and Arabic culture thrived. In 1096, the Crusades began with the conquest of Jerusalem by Christian forces. To protect the road to Jerusalem, the Crusader King Baldwin I built a line of fortresses down the backbone of Jordan (the most famous are Karak and Shobak). However, the defeat of the Crusaders in 1187 brought Jordan back under Muslim power. The Mamluk dynasty united Syria, Egypt and Jordan in the 13th century, ruling from their capital at Cairo.

The Mamluks were defeated by Ottoman Turks in 1516, and Jordan became part of the Ottoman Empire. The four centuries of Ottoman rule were a time of general stagnation for Jordan – villages were abandoned and agriculture declined, though the desert Bedouin tribes continued their normal way of life. Little was built in the way of infrastructure, with the exception of the well-used Hijaz Railway, constructed in 1908.

The Great Arab Revolt
In the early years of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire began a policy of Turkish nationalism and discrimination against Arabs. After the Ottomans joined the Central Powers in WWI, many Arab leaders were imprisoned. In 1916, in alliance with Britain and France, the Arab King Sharif Hussein initiated the Great Arab Revolt, with the goal of creating a united Arab state from Syria to Yemen. The Hijaz Railway was frequently attacked, as fans of the film Lawrence of Arabia will recall. At the end of the war, Arab forces controlled all of modern Jordan, most of the Arabian peninsula and much of southern Syria. However, British and French interests prevailed, and the lands were placed under colonial control.

The British divided the land of Transjordan into three local administrative districts, with a British “advisor” appointed to each. Emir (later King) Abdullah, son of Sharif Hussein, was determined to unite the Arab lands under the banner of the Hashemite family, and established a government at Amman. Faced with revolt, the British proclaimed Abdullah ruler of Transjordan. The emir established the first centralized governmental system in what is now modern Jordan on April 11, 1921. His goal of reuniting the Arab nations was thwarted by coups in the Hijaz and Iraq – however, the emir succeeded in loosening British control over Transjordan. Britain recognized Transjordan as a state in 1923, effectively separating the region from Palestine. A series of Anglo-Transjordanian treaties over the next 20 years led to almost full independence for Transjordan. On May 25, 1946, the Transjordanian parliament proclaimed Abdullah king, while officially changing the name of the country from the Emirate of Transjordan to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.

Modern Jordan
After WWII, tensions increased over the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine. In 1947, Palestine was partitioned into an Arab state and a Jewish state; Israel was declared an independent country in 1948. With the end of the British mandate over Palestine, Jordan sent troops to defend Arab interests during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Jordan’s Arab League was able to hold onto the West Bank and East Jerusalem. The war ended in mid-1949 – in 1951, King Abdullah was assassinated on the steps of a mosque in East Jerusalem. The king’s eldest son, Prince Talal, assumed the monarchy on September 6, 1951. Due to health reasons, however, King Talal abdicated the throne less than a year later, on August 11, 1952, in favor of his eldest son Prince Hussein. During his tenure, King Talal initiated the development of a new, liberalized constitution. A regency council ruled Jordan until King Hussein came of age in 1953.

King Hussein tried to institute liberal reforms, but he was challenged over the next several years by revolts and coup attempts. The early 1960s saw more stability and high rates of economic growth. However, Palestinian guerilla groups were forming, and began making attacks on Israel from Jordan. Israel responded with an attack on the West Bank. Caught up in a wave of pan-Arab nationalism, and fearing war was inevitable, King Hussein signed a defense treaty with Egypt. The Six-Day war began on June 5, 1967 with an Israeli attack on Egypt. The war’s outcome was devastating to Jordan, which lost control of the agriculturally rich West Bank. Martial law was declared in the chaotic period following the war. King Hussein managed to thwart an overthrow of his monarchy by Palestinian rebels in 1970, and permanently relinquished Jordanian claims to the West Bank in 1988. In 1989, Jordan renewed its commitment to liberal reform and parliamentary politics; political parties were legalized in 1992. A peace treaty with Israel was signed in 1997.

King Abdullah II assumed the throne following his father’s death in 1999. The new king’s reign has been one of aggressive economic reform – Jordan joined the WTO in 2000 and the European Free Trade Association in 2001. Women and independent candidates have enjoyed increased political power under this regime, and the king has instructed his prime minister to focus on improvements in healthcare, housing and education.